History of Psychology Essay

The development of modern psychology has roots that can be found well past the 19th century. This paper will identify philosophers who are historically related to the beginnings of psychology as a formal discipline. It will also identify philosophers in the western tradition who were primary contributors to the formation of psychology as a discipline. The development of the science of psychology during the 19th century will also be explored. Philosophy is not the same as psychology. However, several philosophers provided the necessary foundations for modern psychology (Goodwin,2008). Two philosophers that are historically related to the beginning of psychology as a formal discipline are Plato and Aristotle. During the fourth and fifth centuries, Plato and Aristotle were the prominent philosophers. Ironically, Aristotle was Plato’s student (Bennett,2007). However, they did have different thoughts on explaining the â€Å"soul†, which was the common term used for the mind. The view that Plato held was that the soul was composed of three parts: the thymos(emotion), nous (intellect) and menos (rage). He also believed that the soul was incorporeal or not material (Bennett,2007). Aristotle on the other hand, distinguished three different kinds of soul: rational, sensitive and nutritive and thought it impossible for an incorporeal soul to interact with a corporeal body (Bennett,2007). So in other words, Aristotle thought that both mind and body, that the mind is not a spirit, but is substantial. These two philosophers unknowingly laid the foundation for psychology. Even in this modern age we still do not have a clear understanding of all the attributes of the psyche, such as cognitive, emotional and responses work. Following Plato and Aristotle, around the 17th century, one of the topics of discussions of human psychology was whether or not humans are born with knowledge and understanding of reality, or are they acquired through experiences and interactions with the world. John Locke is one of the two major philosophers of the western tradition that was a primary contributor to the formation of psychology as a discipline. John  Locke was a British philosopher with an empiricist view. His theory stated, that at birth, the mind was a blank slate, onto which experiences of what a person sees, hears, smells, tastes and feels are written (Goodwin,2008). So in other words there is no store of knowledge, but through our senses, our knowledge comes. This debate stills continues today and it is referred to the nature versus nurture. The other important philosopher is during the 19th century was John Stuart Mill, who was also British. John Stuart Mill, was the son of an important British philosopher. Mill senior used the empiricist and associationist doctrine to shape Mill junior (Goodwin,2008). Johns Stuart Mill was also empiricist, like John Locke. However, he did not restrict himself to solely the empiricist views. He believed that,† a complex idea, is formed by the blending together of several simpler ones.† In 1843, John Stuart Mill published, A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, Being Connected View of the principles of Evidence and the Methods of Scientific Investigation, which was the foundational rules for conducting empirical research (Goodwin,2008). Both Locke and Mills advocated that empiricism, knowledge that is obtained from the senses (simplypsychology.org,2012, is the most practical and scientific approach to understanding the human psyche. The development of the science of psychology during the 19th century ushered in Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), who some say is the founder of modern psychology. Wundt developed structuralism. He believed that the mind and behavior can be subject to scientific analysis. William James (1842-1910) also brought in a new approach to psychology called functionalism. James is known for his work, Principles of Psychology, the belief that mentality must be seen as an ongoing process and not fragmented into bits of consciousness. In conclusion, the history of psychology is important for three reasons. First is still a young science. Second, it is important to understanding the heritability of traits. Third, the past can provide unity for psychology’s future (Goodwin,2008). All of the great philosophers of ancient times made discoveries that have aided in modern day psychology as a respectable and scientific discipline. References http://www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html Retrieved November 3, 2012 Bennett, M. (2007). Development of the concept of mind. Australian & New Zealand Journal Of Psychiatry, 41(12), 943-956. Goodwin, C. J. (2008) A history of modern psychology (3rd ed). Hoboken, NJ:Wiley

Bottled Water Essay

Bottled water is one of the easiest ways for getting â€Å"good† water. Bottled water is every where in offices, airplanes, stores, homes and restaurants across the country. People think that bottled water is the best option for their health instead of drinking tap water because they say tap water is not completely pure. What they don’t know is that tap water is the same as drinking bottled water because industries like Nestle gives us tap water in plastic bottles. Plastic bottles contain many chemicals that damage our system by giving us different diseases. This increases the risk of people getting diseases while years pass. People don’t research enough about how is bottled water is made and how they are just taking away our money in this type of products. Before watching the video about bottled water, I realized how bottled water affects our system like a person and how it affects our environment. After watching the video I really didn’t drank bottled water because I am an ecologic person. I have always recycled bottles and in my old school I promoted ways to recycle bottles, and why to recycle. I realized all the pollution is going on in the earth and I like to keep it clean. Even if I am the only person who is recycling one person makes some how some difference for the planet to breath at least a little bit. It makes me sad how people don’t care about our planet knowing all the struggles and the lack of resources we now have. I have my personal plastic bottled to refill to drink water. This is some how good for the planet because we can use one water bottled and drink tap water and recycle. If industries like Nestle are giving us tap water in their fancy plastic bottles to make us believe that they are giving us pure water, why not drink tap water if it is the same. In reality, bottled water is just water. Bottle water means garbage, plastic bottles just makes more garbage in the planet and not all of them are recycled as the recycled industries say they are. Most of them end in the Pacific Ocean, rivers, lakes, etc. Plastic bottles besides killing us with their chemicals they also kill animals. This plastic bottles end up in lakes and in natural environments. Fish, birds, and other animals end up eating some how plastic because it is in their environment, this increases the percentage of animals dying in our natural environment; causing endangered animals. It makes me sad how people knowing how plastic bottles or even in my Earth Science class know how tap water is the same as bottled water are the same and they keep buying them. Why not buy your own plastic water and drink tap water if it is going to be the same kind of product and this way we can recycle by using the same water bottle many times, and drinking the same product that industries like Nestle are providing us in bottled water. I hope that with this critical analysis some of my classmates realize how bottled water is bad for their health and how bottled water damage not only us but also our environment. There are many things going on besides bottled water polluting our environment and damage other living animals. Lets no be selfish and take in consideration all of this information. http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/faq/pdfs/fs_healthseries_bottlewater.pdf http://www.rd.com/health/rethink-what-you-drink/ http://www.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_chem/water/wattap.html http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/tapped/

Ethics and Financial Crisis of 2008 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ethics and Financial Crisis of 2008 - Essay Example The instruments used to create debt in the economy were subprime mortgages. These mortgages were given to people who do not have collateral for their borrowing and were given without banks assessing their sources of income. They were given on the basis of credit score. Hence, in case these people go bankrupt, banks had no avenue to recover their investments. Since, the Financial System in the USA is not independent this created a â€Å"domino effect† situation. When the largest investment bank in the universe Lehmann Brothers collapsed, many other institutions in the US started feeling the pressure. Many had to write off their investments in Lehmann Brothers and they started to crumble. In order to assess why this happened, a study of risky and unethical instruments that were prevalent in the US Financial System at that time is needed. (NY, 2009) Credit Default Swaps are one of the most risky instruments that were common in the United States of America’s financial syste m prior to the 2008 financial crises. This instrument was used by lending companies to hedge their investment against credit risk. If one party need loan, the lender usually asked an insurance company to hedge their loan in the case of credit event against a periodic fee. This looked really bright and it was considered that it was going to increase the level of investments in the economy. For example, if A needs a loan and have a credit rating of B+. B lends loans and lends only to companies with a credit rating of AAA. The third party C with a credit rating of AAA will tell B that it will insure A against a periodic payment. Suppose A agrees and lend $2 Billion to A. It is also important to assume that insurance companies have limited assets. Suppose C has assets worth $3 Billion. It can be assumed that in case of bankruptcy of A, B can recover his investment through C. This looked fine, but what started happening was that companies like started insuring the loans that were as big as 10 times of their assets. Now in case credit event occurs, then they were unable to repay the lender. That was only a speculation that borrowers won’t default on loans. However, if loans that were more than the assets held by C default, then there is no way C can pay A. This would lead to a collapse. Not only A and C will collapse, but A will also go down due to high level of non-performing loans. Similarly, all the debtors of A will also lose their money and domino effect will be created. This is what happened prior to the crises started. The instruments were so risky, that they lead to the fall of the whole Financial System of the United States of America. The reason of failure of these instruments was the high systematic risk that was present in this type of securities. Since, it is impossible to diversify this risk, there was no way that the insurance companies could predict which companies would do well and which would fall down. Since, these instruments could not be diversified it lead a collapse of the whole financial system of the United States of America. (Money Monitoring, 2011). MBS or Mortgage Backed Securities were another fancy term used in the era prior to the 2008 financial crises. Mortgages were given on the premise that the property prices have been rising in the economy. So even if the

Competitve Capability Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Competitve Capability - Research Paper Example Although it is the market leader in retail industry, Wal-Mart now faces several challenges as competition increases and its superstore business model becomes irrelevant (Banjo, 2014). B. The main weaknesses are weak online and e-commerce strategy, the superstore retail model is losing ground among customers, limited global presence and competitiveness and lack of strategic customer relationships. The SWOT analysis, SPACE matrix analysis and BCG matrix provides a glimpse into the internal capabilities of Wal-Mart and the external threats and weaknesses, how to align internal capabilities to external environment and how to leverage a Wal-Mart’s strategic business units (Kozami, 2002). The retail industry in the U.S. continues to have trouble amidst the growing competition, maturing markets and entry of global retailers. Although Wal-Mart retains the market leadership position, because of its large market share and low-cost market leadership position, the growing competition and the increasing international expansion strategies have been a cause of concern even as its superstore model looses ground among retail consumers. The top management at Wal-Mart is therefore considering whether to maintain the same strategies or implement new strategies that would not only hold onto the market share but also drive performance and growth even in future. The first lesson learned from this study is that internal capabilities and strength are very important in determining, implementing and ensuring success of competitive strategies. The SWOT analysis is an effective tool for determining the internal strength and weaknesses and identifying the external opportunities and threats (Markgraf, 2014). An analysis of the external environment using the Porter’s five-factor model suggests that the stiff rivalry in the retail industry remain a key driver for strategic

Strategic Marketing Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic Marketing Management - Case Study Example However, road to foray into such diversified markets was not that easy and needed an innovation from Dell’s management and policy makers. This innovation was not restricted only to new strategies or tactics, but to a complete revamping of its culture and the way employer-employee relationship exists. Question 1 Dell had been operating as the Numero Uno player in the computer industry, leaving behind IBM and Compaq. All credit to its innovative direct-to-sell model. However, Michael Dell (CEO and Founder of Dell Corporation) felt the need to innovate further and extend the targets because according to him, golden sales figures are not always real and most of the times, they carry hidden threats. Even though Dell had been posting mammoth profits in its computer sales, yet innovation was required because of spreading discontent among Dell employees and diminishing influence of leaders. The innovation at Dell was the precursor to its expansion and diversification spree and as such , required a total revamping of the prevailing culture and norms. Every strategy comes attached with strengths and also some defects. Innovation strategy at Dell was strong in its inception and planning aspects because the leaders had smelled the nuances of employee detachments with the Corporation. As such, the innovation strategy was marked by a transformation in the personality and attitude of the leaders itself- Michael Dell and Kevin Rollins. This sparked new zeal, influence and respect amongst the employees that even the senior managers and company owners are so committed to innovate the company that they are ready to change the way they behave. Infusing cultural compatibility was the stepping stone and indeed one of the strengths of the innovation strategy pursued at Dell (Interaction Associates n.d). Two-in-a-box approach was another inspiring and influencing feature as well as strength of the innovation strategy (Park 2003). It fostered team spirit, shared working and syner gistic attainment of goals when two managers or employees worked in tandem. Another strong feature of Dell’s innovation strategy was judiciously planned and analyzed options. The motto behind innovation strategy was ‘efficient and not profitable operations’. This is why Dell even let go of many of new ventures and entry options which seemed lucrative but did not hold much scope of future promise. Innovation should not be at the cost of current positioning and secured market standing. Dell could have proceeded with the options, but what matters is the value which should be delivered to the customers in terms of efficiency, reliability and value (Dell 2002). This is what the biggest strength of innovation strategy was. However, being too rigid on pursuing strategic options and not developing the research and development abilities of the company counts as one of the weaknesses of its innovation strategy. Dell embarked upon many ventures but discontinued them in midw ay because of cost or feasibility options. This is something which is not expected out of an experienced and leadership position holding giant. Innovation is a risk-return tradeoff which was not understood and recognized by Dell. Some sort of employee induction problem is also apparent from the case which unveils concerns like absence of bottom-up management approach, lack of empowerment and creativity in employees and decisions flowing in from the top management cadre of the company. Question 2 Whatever market Dell enters or

Adults learn best when learning by and from experience Essay

Adults learn best when learning by and from experience - Essay Example Witt, 2003; Manning, 2003; Michelson, 1996; Wilhelm, 1997). The child is a professional learner and his/her life revolves around school attendance and study, to the degree that learning may be defined as the child's foremost priority and responsibility. The situation is entirely different where the adult learner is concerned, with career and familial responsibilities functioning as the foremost priorities and study/learning, a secondary concern which may even be resented insofar as it impinges upon the adult's free time or the attention he wants to direct towards his other concerns (DeWitt, 2003; Manning, 2003; Michelson, 1996; Wilhelm, 1997). The articulated differential between adult and child learners has given rise to an entire body of literature on adult learning and teaching approaches and strategies. Each of the theories or learning strategies proposed for employment with adult learners is validated by a wealth of empirical evidence but, educational psychologists have incontro vertibly established experiential learning to be the optimal learning strategy vis--vis adults. Through a discursive analysis of this particular learning theory, its application s and outcomes, concomitant with a subjective experiential overview, the essay shall affirm the utility of this teaching-learning approach and argue that its strength primarily emanates from the fact that it embraces the principles of variant learning-teaching theories but maintains that assimilation of the learnt can only occur pending practice an application. However, rather than simply proceed from the assumption that adults learn best when they learn from, by and through experience, the essay shall first overview the scholarship of learning, present the variant and more popular of the learning theories and argue that even though each is inherently valid, experiential learning remains the most effect vis--vis the adult student both because it embraces the major precepts and teaching strategies presented b y those theories and extends beyond their confines. Nevertheless, and as the argument shall highlight, irrespective of the learning theory that a tutor selects, if the aim is to create a dynamic and constructive learning environment, characterised by efficient and effective learning, the tutor must integrate elements of the experiential learning theory into his/her teaching style, especially as pertains to learning from, by and through experience. The Scholarship of Learning Learning theories abound and rose in concomitance with the evolution of psychology and formalised educational systems. The primary aim of the aforementioned theories, as Ehreman and Oxford (1990) explain was the development of the ideal learning and teaching strategy. In immediate comparison, the scholarship of learning and teaching is a recent pedagogical development. Defined by Kreber and Cranton (2000) as the systemisation of academic inquiry and research into the most effective, or ideal teaching and learning

No topic 8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

No topic 8 - Essay Example Establishment of friendships is important for all children since it teaches them the importance of others in their lives. They learn to understand what others are like and how to please them. This is an important aspect of positive behavior. They learn to communicate with each other and understand others’ beliefs, attitudes and standards. They learn to respect their peers and teachers. This respectfulness makes them achieve good place in the eyes of their educators. They also learn to share things and enjoy being a part of a collaborative environment. They learn to be compassionate toward others and be honest with their work and belongings. They learn to understand each others’ perspectives. These are all the attributes of a caring classroom community where the main focus of the educators is to inculcate in the children the best interpersonal and social skills so that they are able to help themselves out of any difficult situation they might encounter within the school premises and are able to learn best lessons which they can apply to their family lives

World Religions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

World Religions - Essay Example Daoism is a ‘religion’ since it entails an orientation to as well as a relation with the hallowed. Furthermore, Daoism is a ‘tradition’ since it is a society of devoted practitioners linked to one another as a historic as well as energetic continuum (Esposito, Fasching, & Lewis, 2002, p. 498). The Dao is the ultimate or sacred interest of Daoists. There are 4 primary Dao characteristics: a) Source; b) Unnamable mystery; c) All-pervading sacred presence; d) Universe as an astral process (Nature). Additionally, the Dao is ineffable and impersonal. Through an impulsive, neutral procedure, the Dao shifted from primordial un-differentiation-differentiation (the patent realm). Daoists theology, therefore, emphasizes immanence and emanation.The Daoism religion has no founder or standard scripture. Diverse adherents, communities as well as movements worship different scriptures and individuals. Generally speaking, Master Lao (Laozi) receives veneration place, but La ozi is mythological and pseudo-historic. Laozi is a complex figure. In respect to leading scriptures, the ‘Daode Jing’ (the Dao as well as Virtue Scripture), similarly known as (Lao-tzu; ‘the Book of Venerable Masters’), has possibly been most dominant and influential (Esposito, Fasching, & Lewis, 2002). 2. Shinto is Japanese faith that worships all the kami of earth and heaven. Its beginning is as ancient as the Japanese history. Â  Shinto was, therefore, a faith that came into being naturally in Japan. Shintoism is not a religion established and advocated by any particular individual, therefore, there exists no dogma grounded on lessons or actions of the initiator. Shinto has openness to external faiths, even those with an entirely different nature like Buddhism (Esposito, Fasching, & Lewis, 2002). As there is no doctrine, there is no sectionalism. By nature, religions tend to break into several groups because of differences on interpretation of doctrine . In the instance of Shinto there exists no dogmatic dis-confederacy, and this is the reason Shintoism embraces people of dissimilar faiths. Shintoism does not impart that individuals must be liberated from the worldly hardships, a philosophical reflection traditionon life, sufferings and death exist. Shintoism does not satisfy individuals in idealistic terms. However, this is indeed the reason it is calmly acknowledged by many people, without philosophical discrimination (Esposito, Fasching, & Lewis, 2002). Because Shintoism is a faith closely linked to secular-life through celebrations and traditional rites-of-passage, its value organism is closely linked to that of a secular-society. Consequently, though it does not have the sharpness pertaining to logical expansion of thought, Shintoism has instituted its own way over the development of its extensive history. Individuals have been stirred to execute what they think will bring gratification to the ‘Kami’ and to refra in from what could upset Kami (Esposito, Fasching, & Lewis, 2002). 3. Nature in Chinese religion is embraced as a way for man to develop and survive through being in harmony with nature. Nature in the Chinese religion is viewed as basis for all things in the globe and they should be interdependent and inseparable. The Chinese religion opposes the obliteration of the biosphere. It advocates that people must take care of nature, live an environmental life-style that ensures environmental sustainability and protection (Esposito, Fasching, & Lewis, 2002). Chinese religion deems that nature and man are interrelated as well as bound by knots of retribution and reciprocity. If humans are in accord with nature, plus nature is appropriately treated by human-beings, the planet will be harmonious and peaceful, and every single thing

Progressive Era through the Great Depression Research Paper

Progressive Era through the Great Depression - Research Paper Example However, considerable achievements were realized during the period of the Great Depression. Examples of theses said gains are the establishment of the UN Commission on women status (Pierre, 2000). These movements fashioned the foundation for the current advances in women rights that are being witnessed in the current society. The second event this paper will expound is the stock market crash of 1929. The crash has been often cited as among the worst stock market crash in the history of United States. Its impact was so massive; it took the American economy approximately ten years to recover from this fallout. This stock market crash was preceded by a nine year steady rise of the American economy. The magnitude and implications of this crash warrants its classification as a significant turning point in the period of discussion. 2) 911 attacks and Terri Schiavo The current America society has witnessed several turning points, be it in the economic, political or cultural perspective. How ever, none rivals the power of the September Eleven attacks as a turning point. These attacks, more than ever, brought to the public light the vanity of American national security forces. It demonstrated just how susceptible the American people were to foreign attack. These attacks instigated radical reforms to the American government and subsequently the introduction of comprehensive security measures (Lionel, Baron & Murray, 2005). ... Terry Schiavo was left to die of starvation and dehydration that culminated in her bleeding to death (Randall, 1998). It is an appalling act that has put the human rights advancement in jeopardy. This single incident has the power to portray Americans as people with complete disregard for human life. Terry Schiavo was a responsive woman whose state of incapacitation signed her death warrant. The extent of public outcry that followed her death depicts the extent to which this was a gross act of negligence (Randall, 1998). 3) Why western states first There exists no substantiated assertion as to the reason why western states were more accepting of women suffrage as compared to their eastern counterparts. However, there are some claims that appear to be more logical than the rest. The western states had more male mortality rates as compared to the eastern regions (Thomas, Hall & David, 2009). As such, women were forced, by circumstances, to adopt a more assertive role in their lives. As such, they put themselves in the frontier. This then necessitated their suffrage to be accepted if the western states were to survive. An additional elucidation can be sourced from the relative lower women demographic as compared to the eastern states. The eastern states could afford to dominate their women as they were plenty in supply. However, the western states did not have this luxury. Therefore, they had to institute reforms that would entice the female population to migrate into their region. These reforms majorly included the creation of an enabling environment for women suffrage. This rationale is the more logical one in the class of

Harry S. Truman Essay Example for Free

Harry S. Truman Essay Harry Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, on May 8, 1884. He was the eldest of three children born to John Anderson Truman, a farmer, and livestock dealer, and Martha Young Truman. To avoid disagreement as to whether the boy’s middle name should b Shippe (for his maternal grandfather), his parents gave him only the initial â€Å"S. † Truman graduated from high school in Independence, Missouri, in 1901 and worked at various clerical jobs in Kansas City until he was 22. For the next 11 years, he operated the family’s 600-acre (240-hectare) farm at Grandview, Missouri. The purpose of this study is to describe the background, personality, character, and integrity of Harry S Truman and know some of the crucial decisions that Truman was forced to make during his seven and three-quarter years as president (Ryan, 1999). II. Background A. World War I and After When the United States entered World War I, Truman’s National Guard regiment was ordered into active service. He was sent to France in 1918, becoming captain of an artillery battery. He commanded the battery through the heavy fighting of the Vosges Mountains, St. Mihiel, and Meuse-Argonne offensives. When discharged in May, 1919, Truman was made a major in the service. Eight weeks later, Truman married Elizabeth Wallace, of Independence. He had known â€Å"Bess† Wallace since childhood. Meanwhile, in partnership with an army friend, Truman invested his savings in a Kansas City men’s apparel store. The business failed in 1922, a casualty of the postwar depression. Truman refused to declare bankruptcy, however, and spent more than a decade repaying all his debts (Gardner, 2002). B. Truman Enters Politics His business gone, Truman turned to politics, being helped by his friendship with the brother of Kansa City political boss Tom Pendergast. In 1922, he was elected one of the three judges of the Jackson County Court. This position was an administrative rather than a judicial one, with duties corresponding to those of a country commissioner or supervisor in other states. While in this post, Truman also studied law at night at Kansas City Law School. In 1924, Truman was defeated in his bid for reelection, but in 1926 he was elected presiding judge. He conducted his office with such honesty that his integrity could not be questioned. In 1934, Truman was elected to the U. S. Senate. Generally, he supported Roosevelt’s New Deal programs. World War II began during his second term, and Truman became a national figure as chairman of the Special Senate Committee to Investigate the National Defense Program, 1941-44. He estimated that 15 billion dollars was saved through the committee’s recommendations. II. Discussion Harry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the United States. After only 82 days as Vice President, he succeeded to the Presidency on the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945. Despite having had little preparation for the office, Truman proved to be a strong and forceful President. He led the country to victory in the Final phases of World War II and through the critical postwar reconstruction period, and he set the course for United States policy in the cold war. During his presidency made a number of crucial decisions that were both controversial and historically significant. In seeking to shorten World War II, he authorized the use of atomic bombs against Japan. After the war his administration created the Marshall Plan in a successful effort to prevent the economic collapse of Europe; his administration also was responsible for the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (Levantrosser, 2003). When North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, Truman sent United States troops to halt the aggression. His efforts to gain congressional approval for his domestic legislative program (the Fair Deal), however, were generally not successful. Truman was a skilled and fiercely partisan politician who had worked himself up through the ranks of Democratic politics in Missouri. He was a controversial figure throughout his public career. During his years in the White House, Truman was called impulsive, obstinate, and tactless by his critics; courageous, self-confident, and forthright by his admirers (Levantrosser, 2003). IV. Conclusion In conclusion, as president of the United States, I will give him a rate of 8 out of 10. Though President Harry S. Truman had weaknesses as other presidents also have, yet he showed his sincerity as a public figure by serving the people wholeheartedly. Though there ware many criticisms against him yet it did not stop him to stand and do what was right for the welfare of the many. 1. Gardner, Michael R. (2002). Harry Truman and Civil Rights: Moral Courage and Political Risks. Southern Illinois University Press. Carbondale, IL. 2. Levantrosser, William F. (2003). Harry S. Truman: The Man from Independence. Greenwood Press. New York. 3. Ryan, Halford R. (1999). Harry S. Truman: Presidential Rhetoric. Greenwood Press. Westport, CT.

Advantages Of Scripting Language Computer Science Essay

Advantages Of Scripting Language Computer Science Essay A scripting language is a form of programming language that is used to create scripts or bits of code. Scripting languages are often written to facilitate enhanced features of websites, these features are processed on the server but the script of a specific page runs on the users browser. The origin of the term was similar to its meaning in a movie script tells actors what to do: a scripting language controlled the operation of a normally-interactive program, giving it a sequence of work to do all in one batch. For instance, one could put a series of editing commands in a file, and tell an editor to run that script as if those commands had been typed interactively. Advantages of scripting language Its easy to learn and use Minimum programming knowledge or experience required Allows complex tasks to be performed in relatively few steps Allows simple creation and editing in a variety of task editors Allows the addition of dynamic and interactive activties to web pages The editing and running code is fast Disadvantages of scripting language Can be slower to run since they are interpreted and not compiled into machine code. Can be harder to debug since no development environment is available by default. Since they are text based it is easy for other people to modify and thus break it. Why modern web pages use javascript? Browser support- To access flash content you need to install flash plugin into your browser. But to use Javascript you dont need to install a plugin for it, becuase all web browsers have accepted javascript as a scripting language for them and provides support for it. With the use of javascript you can add various features like user authentication, validation etc Javascript easily reads and writes HTML elements and can be embedded into a HTML easily. You can use Javascript to load the page according to the requirement of the browser It is the most light programming language which can be easily loaded on slow internet. An action event can be created with the use of javascript, when a user clicks a button, various events which is not possible through HTML: Javascript has the ability to react on it. Explain the following features of JavaScript, giving an example of each: Objects Javascript has built in objects, some of them are string, date and array. Events A JavaScript can be executed when an event occurs, like when a user clicks on an HTML element. These events can occur when a user clicks the mouse, when a web page has loaded and when an image has been loaded. Methods There are a lot of javascript methods, some of them are anchor, apply, attend, big and blind. Each of these methods are different, for example an anchor method places an HTML anchor that has a NAME attribute around text, an apply method applied a method of an object substituting another object for the current object. Loops Javascript loops often runs with arrays these loops are used to run the same code over and over again, each time with a different value. For example in javascript for is a loop that loops through a block of code a number of times, while loop, loops through a block of code while a specified condition is true. Functions Javascripts has many functions some of them are abs, acos and asin. Each of these methods are different. Abs function returns the absolute value of a number, an acos function returns the arccosine of a number. JavaScript is an object orientated language. Describe what this means. Is JavaScript object-oriented? It has objects which can contain data and methods that act upon that data. Objects can contain other objects. It does not have classes, but it does have constructors which do what classes do, including acting as containers for class variables and methods. It does not have class-oriented inheritance, but it does have prototype-oriented inheritance. The two main ways of building up object systems are by inheritance (is-a) and by aggregation (has-a). JavaScript does both, but its dynamic nature allows it to excel at aggregation. JavaScript is not truly object oriented because it does not provide inheritance. But it turns out that JavaScript supports not only classical inheritance, but other code reuse patterns as well. Task 2 M2 Explain in detail how scripting languages can be used to improve the functionality of web pages. Scripting languages, which can be embedded within HTML, commonly are used to add functionality to a Web page, such as different menu styles or graphic displays or to serve dynamic advertisements. These types of languages are client-side scripting languages, affecting the data that the end user sees in a browser window. Why use Scripting Languages? Quite often we wish to automate a simple task running several programs in a row, installing programs, even writing a simple script or GUI to run a program that needs many parameters. Scripting languages allow us to write such a thing quickly, and run it without any compilation. They also have good support for launching processes and controlling them, parsing text files, etc. With a script, theres never the question of where is the source? or did i re-compile it after i fixed that bug? the script _is_ the source. Client side and Server side Client side In Client side the scripting does all the calculations on the users computer. The web browser or a specific plugin reads the script and converts it into a visual web page. Front end context uses scripting through a user interface. There are many ways a user interface uses scripting one is that it resizes parts of the webpage to make it all fit properly.It also resizes boxes. Most of the information that the user enters into the website stays in the client side and sometimes sent back to the server. Javascript can obtain external files and images. It then exploits all of this using web analytic programs, the server can retrieve all the information from all of these. The difference between client side à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ and server side The difference is fairly simple client side code is processed by the client (the browser to be more specific) while the server code is processed by the server . A typical web page as far as the client is concerned consists of some of HTML implemented by CSS, or Javascript. Server side code, on the other hand is never seen by the browser. The browser is not and should never need to be aware of server side scripts such as PHP. Server side code is browser independent which means that if the page you create looks different in internet explorer than it does in opera. Client Side advantages Allow for more interactivity by immediately responding to users actions May improve the usability of web sites for users whos browsers support scripts Can give developers more control over the look and behaviour of their web widgets Secure as it is protected which means it is not possible to read by users, prevents it from being stolen Client Side disadvantages Not all browsers support scripts therefore users might experience errors if no alternatives are provided Different browsers and browser versions support scripts differently thus more quality testing is required More development time and effort might be required Server side advantages Complex processes become more efficient Does not need to rely on specific browsers or plug ins You can make a webside dynamic, PHP a server side scripting language have features such as you can to add a username and password Server side disadvantages Less immediate Can slow down your web site E.g. AJAX, accessibility, alerts, confirming choices, prompting the user, redirecting the user, browser detection, creating rollovers, checking/validating input, handling forms, maintaining cookies Task 3 P5 (b) Design interactive scripts using scripting languages (JavaScript) that can be embedded onto the website created in assignment 1. Select 2 of the following (you may choose your own if you wish) that you must include into a minimum of two web pages: JavaScript slideshow Random image generator Browser version/type detection Software plug-in detection Feedback form using JavaScript validation For each of your chosen scripts produce: Design: A flow chart or Pseudo code Implementation: Annotated screen shots of the scripts in action on the web pages. Correct structure of HTML code which includes correct indentation of the code and well commented. M3 (b) Printouts of the scripts Testing: P6 (b) A test table containing the variables being tested, test data, expected results and actual results. Task 4: D1 Investigate and produce a report (minimum 1 page) that explains at least three examples of how web pages using scripts are implemented differently in two different browsers, for example, Internet Explorer and Firefox. Browser capability Browsers have varying levels of compliance with Style Sheets. This means that some Style Sheet features are supported and some arent. To confuse things more, some browser manufacturers decide to come up with their own proprietary tags. Fortunately, browser compatibility is becoming less of an issue as the latest browser versions are much more standards-compliant than their earlier counterparts. Browser capability is a headache for Javascript coders around the world. There are two ways to allow conditions within your script such as Javascript to take different paths depending on capability These two ways are: 1. Browser detection 2. Object detection Browser detection Browser detection checks with the browser directly to see which make and model it is. This allows you to choose which code to run on your browser. Browser detection is capable of working out the browser and version being used. This allows the web page to use the right code which is to visually display. Browser detection coding function thisBrowserIs(browserTest){ if(navigator.userAgent.indexOf(browserTest)!=-1){ return true; } } This is an example of browser detection coding. This code means that if it can find the string being passed to this function within the navgator user agent property, then return true Object detection Object detection allows you to check if an aspect of the script language definition exists before trying to use it. It means that the script can detect whether certain objects can work with a specific browser. Object detection example: if (document.images) { do something with the images array } Separate style sheets You want to make sure that your style sheets works on most internet browsers. There is different coding with different browsers. Creating Separate Style Sheets for Internet Explorer and Firefox IE and Mozilla handle CSS instructions differently. It can be annoying but, there is a way to get around it. Make multiple style sheets, one for each type of browser. Then customize each style sheet for its corresponding browser. Create two style sheets, one for IE browsers) and one for every other kind of browser Tell Internet Explorer to use a separate style sheet by inserting the following code between your header tags. Change the name and path of the css files to that of the css files on your site. The code must appear in this order. Task 5: D2 Write a report that evaluates the website that you have created stating good points, bad points and discuss at least four different methods that could be used to improve the created web site. I created a website to a book shop called Harlington book store. It took me 3 weeks to completely finish the website with all the books and prices. As I had previous experience in creating websites this website was quite enjoyable to create. I used three main colours on my website so it would look more professional and creative. I included 9 pages to this website and I have created a menu bar so the user can navigate to these pages. To make this website user friendly I have created alt tags and I have checked the browser capability of the website. During this period I had many problems creating the website such as I had to upload the books one by one with prices and for each book I had to download the book cover. This took me more than a week to finish all the books. Another problem I faced was when I had to resize all the images of the book to the same size. Uploading the books were the most hated part when creating this website apart from that creating the website was very enjoyable. One thing to improve this website would be to create a database so when updating the books can be automatically uploaded on the website instead of uploading on the website itself. Checklist for Assignment 2: JavaScript Implementation Content Y/N Comments TASK 1: Describe the main features of the chosen scripting language (P3) Explain what a scripting language is and why is it used in the modern web pages Objects Events Methods Loops Functions JavaScript is an object orientated language. Describe what this means. TASK 2: (M2) Explain in detail how scripting languages can be used to improve the functionality of web pages. TASK 3: Design, create and test web pages using scripts to implement interactivity. (P5 b) (P6 b) (M3 b) Script 1: A flow chart or Pseudo code Screen shots of the scripts in action on the web page. Comment and indent your code Printouts of the scripts A test table for the script Script 2: A flow chart or Pseudo code Screen shots of the scripts in action on the web page. Comment and indent your code Printouts of the scripts A test table for the script Task 4: (D1) How scripts are implemented differently in two different browsers. (3 Examples) Task 5: (D2) Website Evaluation

Medieval Food :: Food Historical Essays

Medieval Food Food is something that all people have always and will always need to consume in order to survive and thrive. Not only this, but it is also has an important societal function. Food is an important part of celebrations and sometimes dictates roles in societies. In Medieval society food was important for banquets, what was eaten by a person could denote what class a person was from, and was often mentioned in the literature. For my project I presented desserts, bread, and a couple of drinks. As far as the bread is concerned I made one loaf using beer and one loaf using water. The desserts were a strawberry tart, and Daryols, which is basically a custard or pudding pie. I also made two alcohol drinks, Mead, though very weak, and spiced wine. Food is commonly mentioned throughout Old English and Medieval literature. In â€Å"Beowulf†, much of the action revolves around the mead hall where great banquets are held. In â€Å"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight†, the poem begins in the banquet hall and the Green knight first appears before King Arthur and his guests at a feast. Since most of the recipes which I used are from the 14th century I focused most of the literary aspect of my presentation on Geoffrey Chaucer’s â€Å"Canterbury Tales.† First of all the whole reason that the pilgrims tell their tales is because the inn keeper agrees to give the teller of the best story a free dinner at the end of the pilgrimage. Three characters, in particular, are described in the general prologue in relation to food, the nun or prioress, the franklin, and not surprisingly the cook. â€Å"Canterbury Tales† characters The Nun or Prioress is on page 218 of the Norton Anthology of English Literature, seventh edition volume one. Her passage discusses her impeccable manners. The Franklin is on page 223 of the Norton Anthology of English Literature, seventh edition volume one. His passage discusses his grand hall and all of the food he always has on hand and ready to eat in case someone shows up. The Cook is on page 224 of the Norton Anthology of English Literature, seventh edition volume one. This description discusses all of the utensils that the cook brought and what he plans to cook while the pilgrims walk across England.

Spiers Travel Agency Essay -- Organizational Structure

Abstract An organization functions from the mission statement and the organizational structure. These functions helps to make a company move smoother within departments, which is assigned to individuals that are responsible for overseeing that part of the organization. The organization is responsible with living out the purpose of their mission statement. The organizational structure reflects from the operative goals to help the organization function accordingly. Operative goals according to Daft, â€Å"are performance goals, resource goals, marketing goals, employee development goals, productivity goals, and goals for innovation and change† (p. 63-4), in which the Spier’s Travel Agency follows by in operating the company. The Organizational Structure: An Understanding of the Complexities of the Environment within an Organization The mission of Spier’s Travel Agency is designed to have an outstanding quality of professionalism and the utmost customer service. Also, to provide the magical experience of traveling of the desired customers. We are dedicated in helping our customers to have the best experience at their dream location at a low-cost. At Spier’s Travel Agency, we are confident that we can provide outstanding customer service to all costumers at all levels. The Spier’s Travel Agency reflects on five important task within the company. Those task are as follow, outstanding customer service, great relationships with our clients and employees, the quality of time management to provide the clients with their dreamed vacations, to provide low-cost rates, and overall happiness and satisfaction. All these goals are acted upon to provide the needed services and to accomplish the facts that are stated within the company’s mi... ...ws. With this company there is a great need to have a form set structure in order to continue with a success growth progress. The models of the organizational charts that were examined shows that there is room for growth as the company lives up to the goal, purpose, and mission of the agency. Spier’s Travel Agency has its structures where there should be little to no room for mistake, but there is no structure where mistakes would not happen within the company. Reference: Daft, R. L. (2008). Organization and Organization Theory. Organization theory and design 10(16). Mason,OH : Joe Sabatino. Daft, R. L. (2008). Organization and Organization Theory. Strategy, organization design, and effectiveness 10(62-4). Mason,OH : Joe Sabatino. Daft, R. L. (2008). Organization and Organization Theory. Fundamentals of organization structure 10(91).

Death and Creation in The Hollow Men :: Hollow Men Essays

Throughout the semester, we have read many poems by many well-known authors.   All of these poems were worthy of the literary merit they received, but I would like to write this paper on a poem that is equally as wonderful.   I will be writing this paper on T.S. Eliot’s â€Å"The Hollow Men.†Ã‚   This is an incredibly poetic work that is just simply brilliant.   I will be discussing how Eliot constantly uses death and creation images to strengthen the theme of the poem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout this entire poem, there is an ever-present theme of death.   There is not a single stanza where there is not something that is â€Å"dead.†Ã‚   The beauty of his verse makes even darkness and death sound appealing. â€Å"Shape without form, shade without colour, Paralysed force, gesture without motion.†Ã‚   This verse alone gives a beautifully haunting image of darkness and death.   This is a descriptive adjective for the kingdom of death in which the hollow men reside.   â€Å"Death’s kingdom†, â€Å"the dead land†, â€Å"dying stars†, and â€Å"fading stars† are all images of death that Eliot uses to stress the ever-present theme of death in this poem.   The way that he links it all together almost makes the reader want to become one of the â€Å"hollow men.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the things about this poem that makes it so interesting, is the fact that despite the ever-present theme of death, Eliot throws in a few images of creation to counteract it.   In stanza four, the lines â€Å"Sightless, unless The eyes reappear As the perpetual star, Multifoliate rose Of death’s twilight kingdom.   The hope only Of empty men† creates the image of re-creation as a possibility of these â€Å"hollow men†.   This is their only hope, and in a way, is like the creation of the world for them.   The reappearing eyes almost serve as their saviour.   â€Å"Between the conception And the creation, Between the emotion And the response Falls the Shadow† is also an image of creation.   It is a subtle implication of life and death falls in to existence after creation.   Eliot’s poetic style here is simply outstanding.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is also a religious undertone tied in with all of Eliot’s images of death and creation.   It seems that every mention of death gives a religious image as well.   The poem always speaks of â€Å"death’s kingdom†, and is not death’s kingdom part of the kingdom of God?   I definitely get a religious image in my mind, as do, I suspect, most readers, when I see the line â€Å"For Thine is the Kingdom† repeated on more than one occasion.

Translating Metaphores in the Catcher in the Rye

TRANSLATING COLLOQUIAL IDIOMS/METAPHORS IN THE CATCHER IN THE RYE: A COMPARISON OF METAPHORICAL MEANING RETENTION IN THE SPANISH AND CATALAN TEXTS MICHAEL O’MARA Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Martir Michael. [email  protected] es 57 In spite of the novel's position among the American Library Association's list of the one hundred most frequently censored books, The Catcher in the Rye (1951), by J. D. Salinger, is widely considered to be one of the most significant literary works of the twentieth century, frequently found in high school literary curricula throughout Europe and North America.The controversy concerns its alleged profanity, vulgar language and treatment of sexual themes, elements that typify Holden's use of the English language, or his idiolect. Idiolect refers to individual speech. It is based on grammar, word selection, phrases, idioms, and includes pronunciation. Of particular note is the author’s use of italics to denote emphasis, or wher e accents fall when considering rhythm in, and among, certain words. It is possible that this practice was brought almost to perfection in The Catcher in the Rye, in replicating speech patterns in written language.Quite possibly, it has not been matched since. The author’s ability to capture rhythm and colloquial speech is, indeed, quite remarkable. This is especially obvious for readers who are fluent in, or are native speakers of American English. Consider how the author stresses groups of words: â€Å"Wuddaya mean so what? † (p. 41) â€Å"You don't do one damn thing the way you're supposed to† (p. 41) â€Å"She was blocking up the whole goddam traffic in the aisle† (p. 87) miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’MaraOther times, certain words are stressed: â€Å"What the hellja do that for? † (p. 41) â€Å"Well, don't get sore about it†¦ † (p. 82) â€Å"Which is som ething that gives me a royal pain in the ass. I mean if somebody yawns right while they’re asking you to do them a goddam favor† (p. 28) Finally, and perhaps most characteristic, the author stresses parts of words: â€Å"I mean I’m not going to be a goddam surgeon or a violinist or anything anyway† (p. 39) â€Å"It's not paradise or anything†¦ † (p. 55) â€Å"For Chrissake, Holden. This is about a goddam baseball glove† (p. 1) 58 Preserving the uniqueness of Holden Caulfield's idiolect has been a challenge for translators seeking to preserve the effect and the flavor of the discourse using the techniques that Salinger originally used, namely, stream of consciousness and dramatic monologue in which, directly and intimately, Holden tells his story in retrospect to the readers. This technique has the effect of reproducing the inner workings and thought processes of Holden —disjointed and random— and also provides dialogs that are remarkably fluid and natural.To represent Holden and his frustrations using the same register in another language is a daunting chore, indeed, especially since Holden attaches his own meanings to the language that he uses. Costello1 reminds us that Holden appropriates common expressions from his period and makes them his own. For example, his free and loose use of â€Å"and all† to end thoughts along with the affirmative â€Å"I really did† or â€Å"It really was† are repeated throughout the novel, helping to forge Holden's own distinct personality.Other authors have commented upon the importance of Holden’s speech in defining his character in relation to the readers: â€Å"†¦ his language, his own idiolect, full of idioms and colloquialisms, is the main feature that will contribute to Holden’s development as a character in his transition from adolescence to adulthood and his relationship with the reader†2. Although translating Hold en's idioms may present challenges, it may be one of the most important aspects of preserving the flavor of his idiolect and effect it has on readers.Holden Caulfield's idioms Like other languages, English is full of idioms such as â€Å"to break a leg† and â€Å"to pull someone's leg†. An idiom is a form of expression, grammatical construction, phrase, etc. , peculiar to a language; a peculiarity of phraseology approved by the usage of a language, and often having a signification other than its grammatical or logical one. 3 miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye Idioms generally have three characteristics: 1.Their meaning cannot be deduced from their components or any arrangement thereof, and must be learned as a whole. If one were to interpret ‘to break a leg’ solely on the basis of its components it might be very difficult to realize tha t the actual meaning is positive, meaning to have a good time, not incur injury, especially when used in the imperative. Likewise, nowhere in the expression ‘to pull someone’s leg’ there appears any element that would suggest joking, or specifically, having someone believe things that are not true. 2. None of their constituents may be substituted with words of similar meaning.For example, if one were to substitute the word ‘fracture’ for ‘break’ in to ‘break a leg’, the meaning would be lost. Likewise, upon being the object of joking one could not say that he or she had had his or her leg ‘stretched’. 3. Finally, idioms cannot be syntactically modified. One would probably not be understood if one were to say ‘I had my leg broken’ meaning ‘I had a good time’; it would be similarly confusing to say ‘I had my leg pulled yesterday’ if one were to communicate that they were joke d with yesterday. Without any contextual information a learner of English might have little idea what these expressions mean.Clearly, the meaning in these phrases is figurative, or â€Å"expressing one thing in terms normally denoting another†4 and metaphorical where â€Å"a figure of speech in which a word or phrase denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a similarity between them (as in the ship plows to sea)†. 5 For this reason, the idioms in question found in the book could be referred to as colloquial metaphors6 as some authors prefer: metaphors for the aforementioned semantic arguments and colloquial because they are metaphors which exist in the more informal registers, in this case, slang.But the term ‘colloquial idiom’ seems to be preferable in most research contexts7. For this reason I will refer to them as colloquial idioms/metaphors. This study focuses primarily on the pragmatic purpose of these metaphors since it is the idiolect of Holden Caulfield that is to be examined in its aesthetic effect and ‘flavor’. Therefore, not all metaphors found in Holden's idiolect were chosen. In fact, some metaphors are so common that it has been forgotten that they are metaphors, having been accepted into standard use.Such is the case with the great majority of phrasal verbs in English: ‘get up’, ‘get over’, etc. Also, there are many examples of colloquial word combinations repeated with some frequency in the novel, but they have not been included in the study as their metaphorical qualities are more abstract8 and might rather, and more appropriately, be studied as collocations, or words that are found to occur together, to examine their restrictions of usage in relation to other components (prepositions, verbs, etc. . Here are some examples that use the word ‘hell’: miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137- 6368 59 Michael O’Mara hell of it as hell The hell out to bang hell (as a noun) The hell with it in hell 29, 61, 73,210 34,35, 37, 38, 94, 113 52, 179 53, 115, 69 146 TABLE 1: Common word combinations not included in the study and their page numbers Theoretical framework We are in agreement with Lorenzo, M. et al. in that the first step a translator must take is to clearly define his objective before producing a translation which is as true as possible to the original text. One of the aspects of Hans Vermeer’s concept of skopos (1989:227) is the establishment of a clearly defined objective or purpose for translation: Any form of translational action, including therefore translation itself, may be conceived as an action, as the name implies. Any action has an aim, a purpose. The word skopos, then, is a technical term for the aim or purpose of translation. 0 This said, we are in agreement with Lorenzo et. al (1999: 324) in the transators’ role to â€Å"preserve t he purpose of the ST (source text) without any gratuitous alteration. The main objective of any translation should be that of faithfulness to the original text with close attention to coherence. With this objective in mind, any translation of The Catcher in the Rye must consider the possible purposes the author had in using colloquial idioms/metaphors in the first place.Paul Newmark proposes that there are two purposes that metaphors serve: a referential purpose, which describes â€Å"a mental process or state, a concept, a person, an object, a quality or an action more comprehensively and concisely than is possible in literal or physical language†9 and a pragmatic purpose â€Å"which is simultaneous, is to appeal to the senses, to interest, to clarify â€Å"graphically†, to please, to delight, to surprise. The first purpose is cognitive, the second aesthetic. 10 Although Holden's colloquial metaphors/idioms do have referential significance, it is arguable that much o f their significance in forming an integral part of his idiolect derives from their pragmatic or aesthetic purpose, their contribution to the flavor of Holden's discourse. Any translation of The Catcher in the Rye would have to be sensitive to the effect that they produce on readers, and try to produce the same effect in the miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 7-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye translation (Nida's Equivalent Effect). This would entail, whenever possible, locating in the target language a metaphor used in informal registers whose semantic content overlaps as closely as possible the meanings of the original metaphor. This would require a parallelism between form and meaning or a principle of identity as Lorenzo et al. (1999) describe where: †¦ ny element in the ST [source text] should be translated and translatable into the TT [target text] by paying close attention not only to t he content but also to the form. Accordingly, there should be a close structural and meaningful parallelism (=identity) between the source and the target language. The translator, then, should stick to the ST itself as the only base for the process of translation. The TT, therefore, will be the result of a close analysis of the ST by following the identity principle and an attempt at further interpretation or deviation should be discarded. 1 For the sake of simplicity in this research, I will be using Lopez’s (1997) definition12 of lexicalized structures with a slight modification: her definition encompasses idioms and cliches which can be understood in a broader sense as ‘word combinations’, ‘fixed expressions’ and ‘phrasal lexemes’. Although they are distinctive elements in the idiolect of Holden as well, I propose to exclude routine formulae (you could tell, if you know what I mean) and non-canonical expressions, understood by Lyons ( 1968: 178) in Lopez as ‘schemata’ (How about†¦? , to focus the research specifically on Holden's colloquial idioms/metaphors and the methods that were used in their translation. These will be described according to Lopez’s model13, which was derived in part from Baker (1992), who describes four principal methods: literal translation, translation by equivalence, translation by modification and translation by omission. Literal translation involves the use of a lexical structure in the target language that is similar in form and meaning. These correspondences are rarer, but they do occur. For example when Holden says â€Å"I damn near dropped dead† (p. 1) the colloquial idiom/metaphor â€Å"to drop dead† is translated using the literal translation method as there exists a correspondence in form and meaning in both Spanish â€Å"Casi me caigo muerto† (p. 46), and Catalan â€Å"Va anar de poc que no caigues a terra mort† (p. 51). Trans lation by equivalence is a method that is often employed when there is no complete correspondence between structure and form between the source and target language. It involves the use of another lexical structure in the target language that is similar in meaning but different in form. â€Å"I wouldn’t have the guts to do it† (p. 9) is translated into Spanish as â€Å"no habria tenido agallas para hacerlo† (p. 116) and into Catalan as â€Å"no tindria pebrots de fer-ho† (144). The structures themselves are practically identical; the difference resides in the fact that while the noun ‘guts’ can express courage idiomatically in English, the same is not true in miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 61 Michael O’Mara 62 Spanish or in Catalan and is realized by different nouns, namely, ‘agallas’, literally ‘gills’ or ‘tonsils’ in Spanish and ‘p ebrots’, or literally, ‘peppers’ in Catalan.Translation by modification involves paraphrasing or explaining the metaphorical meaning of a lexicalized structure. The result is the loss of figurative meaning; the idea is no longer expressed in metaphorical terms. This method is usually employed when no equivalent or near equivalent structure can be found in the target language. Baker argues that this technique is also used when â€Å"it seems inappropriate to use idiomatic language in the target text because of differences in stylistic preferences of the source and target languages†. 14 For example, â€Å"Old Stradlater was one of his pets†¦ (p. 43) is translated in Spanish as â€Å"Stradlater era uno de sus favoritos†¦ † (p. 60) and Catalan as â€Å"L'Stradlater era un dels seus preferits†¦ † (p. 71). In English ‘pet’ has the following meanings: â€Å"1: a domesticated animal kept for pleasure rather than utility; 2a: a pampered and usually spoiled child; b: a person who is treated with unusual kindness or consideration: darling†. 15 The meanings of this word in Spanish (animal domestico† or â€Å"mascota†) and in Catalan (â€Å"animal domestic†) are not usually extended to describe people who are treated with â€Å"kindness and consideration†.Here, a similar metaphor in meaning but not in form could be used, or, as is the case in this example, the metaphor might be paraphrased or explained. The last method, omission, is used when a metaphor in the source language is not translated since an equivalent cannot be found, or because it is not easy to explain, or for stylistic reasons is not deemed appropriate for inclusion. This last method introduces some interesting concerns: it is quite possible that there is no similar structure in the target language to explain the paraphrasing of a metaphor, but if such similar or equivalentt structures were to exist, there ight be other elements within the greater cultural context of the target language (elements absent in the greater cultural context of the source language) that could impact the appropriateness of their use. Perhaps, what should be considered is whether the possible connotations that the metaphor could have or produce outside its culture of origin might distract the reader from the original field of reference of the metaphor, or introduce secondary meanings that are not necessarily present in the circumstances of the original metaphor. miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 7-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye Source text colloquial metaphors and their target text representations: Description METAPHOR ST (P. ) 1 †¦ I got pretty run-down†¦ (1) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ me quedara bastante hecho polvo†¦ (9) Equivalence 2 It killed me. (2) Me dejo sin habla. (10) Equivalence 3 Strictly for the birds. (2) Bobadas. (10) Modification 4 So I got the ax. They give guys the ax quite frequently at Pencey. (4) Asi que me expulsaron. En Pencey expulsan a los chicos con mucha frecuencia. (12) Modification 5 I have no wind,†¦ (5) No tengo nada de fuelle†¦ 13) Equivalence 6 They got a bang out of things,†¦ (6) Pero se lo pasaban bomba con sus cosas,†¦ (16) Equivalence 7 †¦ though – in a half-assed way, of course. (6) †¦ un poco a lo tonto, claro. (16) Equivalence 8 It gets on your nerves sometimes (7) A veces te ponia nervioso. (17) Modification16 9 That knocked him out. (8) Se hizo una gracia tremenda. (17) Equivalence 10 I mean he didn't hit the ceiling or anything. (8) Vamos, que no se puso como una fiera ni nada. (18) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) †¦ d'acabar ben desinflat†¦ (7) Equivalence En va deixar de pedra. (8) Equivalence Sense comentaris. 8) Modification O sigui que em van fotre al carrer. Foten la gent al carrer ben sovint, a Pencey. (11) Equivalence 63 No aguanto gens†¦ (13) Modification S'ho passaven be,†¦ (15) Modification †¦ pero a mig gas, es clar. (15) Equivalence A vegades et posava nervios. (16) Modification Aixo el va fer petar de riure. (17) Equivalence Vull dir que no va pujar per les parets ni res d'aixo. (18) Literal miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara METAPHOR ST (P. ) 11 So I shot the bull for a while (12) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ asi que me enrolle un buen rato. 23) Modification CATALAN TT (P. ) Aixi que vaig xerrar una estona. (24) Modification Es ficaven pel coi de finestra i tot. (24) Literal Aquesta historia em va deixar ben de pedra. (32) Equivalence †¦ i llegeixo molts llibres de guerra i de misteri i etcetera, pero no m'entusiasmen gaire. (33) Modification â€Å"Suare sang†¦ † (47) Equivalence †¦ m'ho passo de por imitant-les. (49) Equivalence No aguanto res de res. ( 49) Modification 12 They were coming in the goddam window. (13) Los habia a patadas. (24) Equivalence 13 That story just about killed me. (18) Esa historia por poco me deja sin habla. (31) Equivalence 4 †¦ and I read a lot of war books and mysteries and all, but they don't knock me out too much. (18) †¦ y leo un monton de libros de guerra y de misterio y todo eso, pero no me vuelven loco. (31) Equivalence 15 64 â€Å"†¦ I'll be up the creek†¦ † (28) â€Å"†¦ me la cargo†¦ † (43) Equivalence 16 I get a bang imitating them. (29) †¦ lo paso bomba imitando a†¦ (44) Equivalence 17 I have hardly any wind at all (29) Tengo muy poco fuelle. (44) Equivalence 18 I damn near dropped dead. (31) Casi me caigo muerto. (46) Va anar de poc que no caigues a terra mort. (51) Literal Literal I no ho deien nomes per dir. 63) Modification El feia tornar boig†¦ (69) Equivalence L'Stradlater era un dels seus preferits†¦ (71) Modification 19 A nd they weren't just shooting the crap. (38) Y no lo decian por decir. (54) Modification 20 It drove him crazy†¦ (41) Le sacaba de quicio†¦ (59) Equivalence 21 Old Stradlater was one of his pets†¦ (43) Stradlater era uno de sus favoritos†¦ (60) Modification miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye METAPHOR ST (P. ) 22 I'd been given the ax†¦ (51) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ e habian expulsado†¦ (71) Modification CATALAN TT (P. ) †¦ m'havien fotut fora†¦ (85) Equivalence †¦ i jo estava aqui, expulsat una altra vegada. (85) Modification No hi toca gaire†¦ (86) Equivalence Aixo em va deixar clavat. (91) Equivalence Aixo em va matar. (91) Literal Despres vaig comencar a deixar anar la llengua de debo. (92) Equivalence †¦ i vaig poder descansar la llengua. De totes , maneres no em sap greu haver-la fet anar una estona. (93 ) Equivalence †¦ despres del que li vaig deixar anar†¦ (94) Equivalence Que n'era una de ben grossa†¦ (95) Equivalence Tenia ganes de trucar algu. 97) Modification Despres vaig pensar de trucar a la mare de Jane Gallagher†¦ (97) 65 23 -and here I was getting the ax again. (52) †¦ mientras me estaban expulsando otra vez. (71) Modification 24 She doesn't have all her marbles any more†¦ (52) Esta un poco ida†¦ (72) Equivalence 25 That killed me. (55) Me dejo sin habla. (76) Equivalence 26 That killed me. (55) Me dejo sin habla. (76) Equivalence 27 Then I really started chucking the old crap around (56) Entonces fue cuando de verdad empece a meter bolas. (77) Equivalence 28 †¦ and it gave me a chance to quit shooting it. I'm glad I shot it for a while, though. (57) .. me dio la oportunidad de dejar de largar. Pero me alegre de haber largado un rato. (78) Equivalence 29 †¦ after all the crap I shot, (57) †¦ despues de todo el rollo que le largue†¦ (78) Equivalence 30 Which was really a hot one†¦ (58) Esa si que era buena†¦ (80) Modification 31 I felt like giving somebody a buzz. (59) Tenia ganas de llamar a alguien. (81) Modification 32 Then I thought of giving Jane Gallagher's mother a buzz,†¦ (59) Luego pense en llamar a la madre de Jane Gallagher†¦ (81) miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara METAPHOR ST (P. SPANISH TT (P. ) Modification CATALAN TT (P. ) Modification †¦ no hi hauries de fer el ximple†¦ (102) Equivalence Vaig passar-me tota la nit festejant amb una hipocrita terrible†¦ (103) Equivalence †¦ vaig comencar a jugar amb la idea de trucar a la Jane,†¦ (103) Modification 33 †¦ you shouldn't horse around with her at all,†¦ (62) †¦ no deberias hacer el indio con ella†¦ (85) Equivalence 34 I spent the whole night necking with a terrible phony†¦ (63) Me pase toda la noche besandome y todo eso con una chica falsisima†¦ (85) Modification 35 I started toying with the idea,†¦ , of giving old Jane a buzz†¦ 63) †¦ empece a jugar con la idea de llamar a Jane,†¦ (86) Modification 36 Anyway, I went over to the phone and gave her a buzz. (63) Bueno, pues fui al telefono Es igual, vaig agafar el y la llame. (86) telefon i li vaig trucar. (104) Modification Modification †¦ , va anar de ben poc que no truco a la Phoebe,†¦ (110) Modification Pero no podia arriscar-me a fer-li una trucada,†¦ (110) Equivalence †¦ no m'hauria fet res xerrar una estona amb la Phoebe. (110) Modification †¦ L'Allie tenia en barco de vela i li agradava jugar-hi†¦ (112) Modification Sabia que no el deixaria anar gaire lluny amb ella†¦ 130) Modification 66 37 †¦ I damn near gave my kid sister Phoebe a buzz,†¦ (66) †¦ estuve casi a punto de llamar a mi hermana Phoebe. (90) Modification 38 But I couldn't tak e a chance on giving her a buzz,†¦ (66) Pero no podia arriesgarme a llamarla†¦ (90) Modification 39 †¦ I certainly wouldn't have minded shooting the crap†¦ (67) Pero no me habria importado pegar la hebra†¦ (90) Equivalence 40 Allie had this sailboat he used to like to fool around with†¦ (68) Allie tenia un barquito de vela con el que le gustaba jugar†¦ (92) Modification 41 I knew she wouldn't let him get to first base with her,†¦ 80) Sabia que no le habria dejado llegar hasta el final con ella†¦ (105)17 Modification miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye METAPHOR ST (P. ) 42 †¦ and a lot of other very tricky stuff that gives me a pain in the ass. (84) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ y un monton de florituras de esas que me dan cien patadas. (110) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) †¦ i tota una altra pila de filigranes que em fan venir mal d'estomac. (137) Equivalence Soc un d'aquells tios forca gallines. (143) Equivalence †¦ no tindria pebrots de fer-ho. 144) Equivalence No es pas gens divertit ser gallina. Potser no soc gallina del tot. No ho se. Em sembla que potser soc nomes una mica gallina†¦ soc una mica gallina†¦ El que no s'hauria de ser es gallina. (145) Equivalence Es ser gallina d'una manera molt curiosa†¦ pero es ser gallina, i tant. (146) Equivalence Ell va quedar ben torrat†¦ (146) Equivalence Tens ganes de sucar aquesta nit? (147) Equivalence †¦ no m'havia de mudar ni res per una prostituta†¦ (149) Equivalence Quan fa una estona que les petoneges,†¦ (150) Modification 43 I'm one of these very yellow guys (88) Soy un tio de lo mas cobarde. 115) Modification 44 I wouldn't have the guts to do it. (89) †¦ no habria tenido agallas para hacerlo. (116) Equivalence 45 It's no fun to be yellow. Maybe I'm not all yellow. I don't know. I think maybe I'm j ust partly yellow†¦ I'm partly yellow†¦ what you should be is not yellow at all. (89) No tiene gracia ser cobarde. Aunque quiza no sea cobarde del todo. No se. Creo que en parte soy cobarde†¦ en parte cobarde†¦ No se debe ser cobarde en absoluto; (117) Modification 67 46 It's a funny kind of yellowness†¦ but it's yellowness, all right (90) †¦ es un tipo de cobardia bastante raro, pero aun asi es cobardia. 117) Modification 47 He got stinking,†¦ (90) El acabo curda perdido†¦ (118) Equivalence 48 Innarested in a little tail t'night? (91) ?Te interesa echar un polvo esta noche? (118) Equivalence 49 I know I didn't have to get all dolled up for a prostitute or anything†¦ (91) †¦ no tenia que ponerme de punto en blanco ni nada de eso para una prostituta†¦ (119) Equivalence 50 After you neck them for a while,†¦ (92) Despues de que te has besado y achuchado y todo eso con ellas,†¦ (120) Modification miscelanea: a journal of e nglish and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara METAPHOR ST (P. 51 When I'm horsing around with a girl†¦ (93) SPANISH TT (P. ) †¦ cuando estoy enrollandome con una chica†¦ (121) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) †¦ quan estic amb una tia†¦ (151) Equivalence Vaig pensar de trucar a la Jane,†¦ (169) Modification †¦ si no ens haguessim petonejat tant i tant. (170) Modification †¦ la persona que estic petonejant†¦ (170) Modification Em tocava molt l'oremus†¦ (171) Equivalence †¦ m'havien tornat a fotre fora. (173) Equivalence †¦ faria una trucada a la Jane†¦ (186) Equivalence Podia agafar alguna cosa ben jazzy†¦ i xiular-ho tan facil i be†¦ que et podia deixar de pedra. 198) Equivalence Vam fer una mica de comedia al taxi. (200) Equivalence Ets pitjor que un gra al cul†¦ (212) Literal 52 I thought of giving old Jabe a buzz,†¦ (105) Pense en llamar a Jane†¦ (136) Mo dification 53 †¦ if we hadn't necked so damn much. (105) †¦ si no nos hubieramos besado y achuchado tanto. (137) Modification 54 †¦ whoever I'm necking†¦ (105) †¦ la persona con la que me estoy besando y todo eso†¦ (137) Modification 68 55 She gave me a pain in the ass†¦ (106) Me caia como una patada en el culo†¦ (138) Literal 56 I got the ax again (107) †¦ me habian expulsado otra vez. (139) Modification 7 †¦ I'd give old Jane a buzz†¦ (116) †¦ podia llamar a Jane†¦ (149) Modification 58 He could take something very jazzy†¦ and whistle it so nice†¦ it could kill you. (124) Podia coger una cancion muy de jazz†¦ y la silbaba tan bien y tan suavecito†¦ que te podias morir. (158) Literal 59 We horsed around a little bit in the cab†¦ (125) En el taxi†¦ nos besamos y nos achuchamos un poco. (159) Modification 60 You give me a royal pain in the ass†¦ (133) †¦ me caes peor que una patad a en el culo. (169) Literal miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye METAPHOR ST (P. ) 61 Boy, did she hit the ceiling when I said that. (133) SPANISH TT (P. ) Jo, como se puso cuando le dije aquello. (169) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) Hosti, si va tocar el sostre quan vaig dir aixo. (212) Literal Ho vaig anar tallant gradualment. (225). Equivalence †¦ els hipocrites hi entren per les finestres. (225) Literal Nomes feia comedia, jo. (229) Equivalence Me n'he d'anar†¦ (235) Modification Era estrictament pitjor que un gra al cul†¦ (236) Literal †¦ va fotre el camp de la sala†¦ (237) Equivalence Nomes feia comedia, es clar. 243) Equivalence †¦ i xerraria una estona amb ella. (248) Modification †¦ la Phoebe sempre porta algun vestit que et deixa de pedra. (253) Equivalence Els quaderns dels nanos fan pixar de riure. (255) Equivalence Anava torrat†¦ (259) 69 62 I gradually cut it out. (141) Deje de ir poco a poco. (179) Modification 63 †¦ the phonies are coming in the window. (141) †¦ hay tios falsos a patadas. (179) Equivalence 64 I was only horsing around. (144) Solo estaba haciendo el indio. (182) Equivalence 65 I have to tear†¦ (148) Tengo que largarme†¦ (187) Modification 66 He was strictly a pain in the ass†¦ (149)Era igualito que una patada en el culo†¦ (187) Literal 67 †¦ she beat it out of the room†¦ (149) †¦ se largo†¦ (188) Modification 68 I was only horsing around†¦ (153) †¦ solo estaba haciendo el indio†¦ (192) Equivalence 69 †¦ just sort of chew the fat with her for a while. (156) †¦ pegar la hebra un rato con ella. (196) Equivalence 70 Phoebe always has some dress on that can kill you. (160) Phoebe lleva siempre unos vestidos que te dejan sin habla. (200) Equivalence 71 Kids’ notebooks kill me. (161) Los cuadernos de los crios me dejan sin habla. (202) Equivalence 72 I was plastered (163) Estaba curda (204) iscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara METAPHOR ST (P. ) SPANISH TT (P. ) Equivalence CATALAN TT (P. ) Equivalence Em va deixar de pedra. (259) Equivalence Volia dir per que m'havien fotut al carrer un altre cop. (264) Equivalence Em feia pixar de riure. (276) Equivalence Nomes fem una mica de comedia a dins de casa. (277) Equivalence Aixo em fa molta gracia. (277) Equivalence †¦ li trucaria,†¦ (283) Modification †¦ anava una mica alegre. (287) Equivalence †¦ et posa nervios†¦ (287) Modification †¦ anava forca alegre. (296) Equivalence Segurament li trucare†¦ 300) Modification †¦ pero la Phoebe es moria de riure. (310) 73 She kills me. (164) Me deja sin habla. (204) Equivalence 74 She meant why did I get the ax again. (167) Se referia a que hubieran vuelto a expulsarme. (209) Modif ication 75 She kills me. (175) Me deja sin habla. (219) Equivalence 76 We just horse around†¦ (175) Solo hacemos el indio†¦ (219) Equivalence 70 77 That kills me. (175) Me deja sin habla. (220) Equivalence 78 †¦ I'd give her a buzz†¦ (180) †¦ la llamaria†¦ (225) Modification 79 †¦ he was a little oiled up. (182) †¦ estaba un poco bebido†¦ (227) Modification 80 †¦ it gets on your nerves†¦ 182) †¦ le pone a uno nervioso†¦ (228) Modification 81 He was pretty oiled up,†¦ (188) †¦ estaba bastante curda. (234) Equivalence 82 I'm probably gonna give her a buzz†¦ (191) Probablemente la llamare†¦ (237) Modification 83 †¦ but it killed old Phoebe. (197) †¦ pero a Phoebe le hizo muchisima gracia. (245) miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye METAPHOR ST (P. ) SPANISH TT (P. ) Modificat ion CATALAN TT (P. ) Equivalence †¦ aniria fins al tunel Holland i faria dit, fins que em carreguessin†¦ 311) Equivalence Com si algu hi acabes de fer un riu. (314) Equivalence †¦ algun desgraciat pervertit que es devia haver ficat a l'escola de nits per pixar o alguna cosa aixi†¦ (315) Modification †¦ la vam fer petar una estona. (316) Equivalence Es va girar i va fotre el camp. (319) Equivalence Es mes gallina que un plat de caldo†¦ (319) Equivalence †¦ un d'aquells tunels que sempre fan pudor de pixats. (328) Modification 71 84 I'd go down to the Holland Tunnel and bum a ride†¦ (198) †¦ iria al Tunel Holland, subiria a un coche†¦ (246) Modification 85 Like somebody'd just taken a leak on them. (200) †¦ omo si alguien acabara de mear ahi. (248) Modification 86 †¦ some perverty bum that'd sneaked in the school late at night to take a leak or something†¦ (201) †¦ un pervertido que habia entrado por la noche en el colegio a mear o algo asi†¦ (249)18 Modification 87 †¦ I shot the breeze for a while. (201) †¦ estuvimos de charla un rato. (249) Modification 88 He turned around and beat it. (204) Se volvio y salio corriendo. (252) Modification 89 He's got a yella streak a mile wide (204) Es de un cobarde que no vea†¦ (252) Modification 90 †¦ those little tunnels that always smell from somebody's taking a leak. (210) †¦ sos tuneles que siempre huelen como si alguien hubiera estado alli meando. (258) Modification miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara Discussion of results The purpose of this investigation was to determine which of the two translations, Spanish or Catalan, retains the greater degree of figurative/metaphorical meaning in their representations of the colloquial idioms/metaphors that Holden Caulfield uses, having said that the use of colloquial metaphors is one of the most unique an d defining aspects of the idiolect of Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye.This is not an assessment of how diligently the translators strove or how successful they were in finding equivalents in the target languages and in no way implies a value judgement as to which translation is more ‘accurate’. It is clear that translators work only with the tools that are available in their target languages and cultural contexts. Nevertheless, what this study attempts to provide is data that can help to clarify to what degree the metaphorical nature of ideas expressed using colloquial metaphors in the source text were preserved as such in the Spanish and Catalan translations.Our results seem to suggest that the colloquial metaphors represented in the Catalan translation retain more of the original figurative meaning present in the source text. This translation employs on significantly more occasions the equivalence method of metaphor translation, used on 53 occasions in the Catalan translation and on 41 occasions in the Spanish version. These data are significant because when this method is used to translate an idea expressed as a metaphor in the source text, the idea retains its status as a metaphor in the target text, the only difference being in its form, or appearance.Since no two languages are alike, target languages cannot always provide correspondences in both form/structure and meaning. Our conclusion is also supported by the fact that the modification method of translation was used on significantly more occasions in the Spanish translation than in the Catalan version: it was used 44 times to produce the Spanish translation and 29 times in the production of the Catalan translation.In other words, the colloquial metaphors that Holden uses in the book are found to be explained or paraphrased significantly more in the Spanish translation than in the Catalan version, which represented these metaphors through either equivalence or the literal method . This last method, although to a lesser degree, supports our conclusion as well: it was found that the Catalan translation used a lexicalized structure similar in form and meaning on 8 occasions while it was found on 5 in the Spanish version.Put differently, although the difference is small (5-8), the Catalan translation uses the same or nearly the same metaphor on more occasions than the Spanish translation. Considered numerically, in the Spanish translation the most frequent method used was that of modification (44), followed by equivalence (41), literal translation (5) and finally omission (0); and in the Catalan translation the most frequent method used was equivalence (53), followed by modification (29), literal (8) and finally omission (0) as may be seen in Table 3: miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 7-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 72 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Spanish Catalan Equivalence 41 53 Modification 44 29 Literal 5 8 Omission 0 0 TABLE 2: Translation techniques: frequency 73 Our results can be compared to similar studies such as Lopez Rua (1997) in â€Å"The translation of the idiolects in The Catcher in the Rye: An approach through lexicalized structures† and Lorenzo, M. et al. , (1999): â€Å"Lack of meaning interaction between English, Galician and Spanish in Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye†.Although the focus of neither study is the translation of colloquial idioms/metaphors, both studies discuss loss of meaning upon translation from English to Spanish and from English to Galician, and coincide in the need to maintain form and meaning between source text and target text. Specifically, Lopez Rua found that the most marked similarity in both translations is the misuse and misapplication of the technique of modification or paraphrasing: Most of the inadequacies detected in the Spanish and Galician versions are related to the translations by paraphrase and by omission.In my view, they are due to the fact that the translators have failed to recognize the defining features of the characters’ idiolect (for example, the systematic use of some lexicalized structures). Apparently, they are not aware of the fact that the writer is deliberately resorting to trite and monotonous vocabulary in order to define the characters and their speech habits. Both translations (but particularly the Spanish one) seem utterly unable to render the characters’ idiolects accurately.Instead of trying to convey those idiolects whenever possible (of course, adapting them to the peculiarities of the TL), in most cases the translators resort to the systematic omission of recurrent structures, and some other times they translate those recurrent structures in many different ways miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Michael O’Mara without taking into account the context, the styl e, and the character who uses them. As a result, the translation becomes expressionless. 19 The results of Lorenzo et. al. 1999), can be applied as well to our study, especially in terms of the importance of a strict adherence to the identity principle20, from which the Spanish and Gallician versions could have benefited: the majority of the possible errors just studied could have been avoided if the translators had taken into consideration the identity principle†¦ In fact, the identity principle, since it is based on the parallelism between form and meaning in the ST and the TT, would have proved a more accurate mechanism when dealing with the process of translation from a given L1 to L2 and L3. 21 Notes 1 See Costello (1959:173). 74 2 . See Lorenzo, M. , et al. (1999: 324). 8 . Some of these word combinations have been the object of other studies. For example, see Lopez Rua (1997). 9 . See the Oxford English Dictionary’s entry for ‘idiom’: http://dictionar y. oed. com/cgi/entry/50111256? single=1&query_ type=word&queryword=idiom&first=1&max_ to_show=10. 4 . Definition provided by Webster's New Encyclopedic Dictionary (1994: 374). 5 Definition provided by Webster's New Encyclopedic Dictionary (1994: 630). 3 . See Newmark (1988: 104). . Ibid. (1988:104). . See Lorenzo, M. , et. al. (1999: .See Lopez Rua (1997: 147). . Ibid. (1997: 148). . Baker, M. (1992:74) in Lopez Rua 10 11 324). 12 13 14 The term ‘colloquial metaphor’ has been used before, especially in online sources: Answers. com, etc. It was found to be used in some non-linguistic academic contexts (legal) such as â€Å"Why originalism won't die – Common mistakes in competing theories of judicial interpretation†, Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy, Online Edition, 2007. Duke J. Con. Law & Pub. Pol'y 230, page 238. 7 . In books that have been published on the subject the term ‘Colloquial idioms’ seems preferable: Ball, W.J. 1972. A Practical Guide to Colloquial Idiom, Wood, F. T. 1976. English Colloquial Idioms, etc. 6 (1997: 148). 15 . Definition provided by Webster's New Encyclopedic Dictionary (1994: 752). 16 . While it is true that both translations of â€Å"It gets on your nerves sometimes† retain figurative/metaphorical meaning, they can be better understood as collocations —†ponerse† (Spanish) and â€Å"posarse† (Catalan) collocate with â€Å"nervioso† (Spanish) and â€Å"nervios† (Catalan)— and their accepted use in both standard Spanish and Catalan is fairly widespread.Here they serve to clarify the original metaphor which in English is generally considered more informal. miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368 Translating colloquial idioms/metaphors in The Catcher in the Rye 17 . The translation of the colloquial metaphor â€Å"to get to first base† with someone here is somewhat in accurate. The Catalan translation is closer in meaning to the ST, where the metaphor is used in relation to romantic intimacy: first base refers to initial contacts such as kissing; a â€Å"homerun† generally refers to sexual intercourse. 8 . The absence of a translation for the word â€Å"bum† in the Spanish translation may be considered somewhat inaccurate: although the word â€Å"bum† does not form a part of the metaphor itself, it does contribute to the atmosphere in which the metaphor is presented. In this case, the â€Å"perverty bum† was left just as â€Å"un pervertido† in the Spanish translation, omitting the vital bit of information that the person is a â€Å"bum† i. e. a homeless and/or poor person. The Catalan version translates it as a â€Å"desgraciat† or unfortunate, unlucky, or even wretched person.One might suggest that a â€Å"perverty bum† is more in keeping with the idiolect of Holden than just a â€Å"perv ert†. 19 . See Lopez Rua (1997: 149). . See Lorenzo, M. et al. (1999: 5). . Ibid. (1999:329). 20 21 Works cited American Library Association. http://www. ala. org/ala/oif/bannedbooksweek/bbwlinks/100 mostfrequently. htm BAKER, M. 1992. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London: Routledge. BALL, W. J. 1972. Practical guide to colloquial idiom. London: Longman. COSTELLO, D. P. 1959. â€Å"The language of The Catcher in the Rye,† AmericanSpeech, Vol. 34, no. 3, October:172-81. LOPEZ RUA, P. 1997. â€Å"The translation of the idiolects in The Catcher in the Rye: An approach through lexicalized structures†. Miscelanea: A Journal of English and American Studies, 18: 139-158. LORENZO, M. , et. al. 1999. â€Å"Lack of meaning interaction between English, Galician and Spanish in Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye†. Estudios de linguistica contrastiva. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela: 323-330. MERRIAM-WEBSTER Inc. 1994. Webster's New Encyclope dic Dictionary.New York: Black Dog & Leventhal. Received: 11 June 2007 Revised version: 17 January 2008 NEWMARK, P. 1988. A textbook of translation. London: Prentice Hall International. OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY: http://dictionary. oed. com/cgi/entry/50034626? single=1&query_ type=word&queryword=catharsis&first=1&max _to_show=10 SALINGER, J. D. 1951. The Catcher in the Rye. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company. —. 1990. El vigilant en el camp de segol. Trans. E. Riera & J. Fonalleras. Barcelona: Editorial Empuries. —. 2006. El guardian entre el centeno.Trans. C. Criado. Madrid: Alianza Editorial. SMITH, T. 2007. â€Å"Why originalism won't die – Common mistakes in competing theories of judicial interpretation†. Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy. Online edition, 159: 230-238. VERMEER, H. 2004. â€Å"Skopos and comission in translational action†. In Venuti, L. (ed. ) The translation studies reader. London: Routledge. WOOD, F. T. 1 976. English colloquial idioms. London: Macmillan. 75 miscelanea: a journal of english and american studies 35 (2007): pp. 57-75 ISSN: 1137-6368